What are the parts of Earth's lithosphere?

The lithosphere (geosphere) is the "solid" part of Earth. It has two parts, the crust and the upper mantle.

The crust is Earth's outermost layer. The crust varies from 5 to 70 kilometers in thickness.

The crust includes rocks, minerals, and soil. There are two kinds of crust: continental and oceanic.

Yes, there is even crust under the ocean! The crust is constantly moving, which is why continents move and earthquakes happen. The science that studies how the parts of the crust move is called "Plate Tectonics.

"Earth's oceanic crust is a thin layer of dense rock about 5 kilometers thick. The continental crust is less dense,with lighter-colored rock, that varies from 30 to 70 kilometers thick. The continental crust is older and thicker than the oceanic crust.

The crust is made of many types of rocks and hundreds of minerals. These rocks and minerals are made from just 8 elements: Oxygen (46.6%), Silicon (27.72%), Aluminum (8.13%), Iron (5.00%), Calcium (3.63%), Sodium (2.83%), Potassium (2.70%), and Magnesium (2.09%). The oceanic crust has more Silicon, Oxygen, and Magnesium. The continental crust has more Silicon and Aluminum.

Evidence for Plate Tectonics:
Plate Boundaries
You may have noticed the shapes of the continents fit together like a puzzle; for example look at the shapes of the east coast of South America and the west coast of Africa in the figure below.
The edges of the tectonic plates are called plate boundaries, and events such as earthquakes, volcanoes and tsunamis originate at these narrow boundary zones between the plates. The locations of earthquakes and volcanoes also provide evidence for plate tectonics.

The red indicates locations of earthquake activity and 'hot zones'. These locations mostly correspond to the edges of the tectonic plates. Hot zones occur where rock from the mantle has melted, finds a weak spot in the Earth's crust, and moves to the surface, releasing heat, gasses, and rock causing a volcanic eruption. (graphic courtesy of WHOI)
Most island formation occurs at tectonic plate boundaries. However, the Hawaiian Islands are an example of a hot zone occuring in the middle of the Pacific Plate on the sea floor. The molten magma breaks through a thin part of the crustal plate causing undersea volcanos. Some of these volcanos build to the surface of the ocean, becoming islands.
See this web site for more details on the formation of the Hawaiian Islands
Plate Interactions
Different type of interactions occur between plates as they move around, producing different types of earthquakes and volcanos. Plates may pull apart, collide, or scrape past each other. The stress and strain produced by moving plates builds up in the Earth's hard crust until eventually the crust breaks and the blocks move in opposite directions along a fracture, called a fault. This sudden movement generates an earthquake.


Plates moving apart produce a divergent plate bounary. Almost all of the Earth's new crust forms at divergent boundaries. When the plates move away from each other the magma from the mantle rises up and forces its way to the surface in a lava flow, where it solidifies as new crust.
Many divergent plate margins are under the oceans, creating long undersea rift zones that fill with lava - called mid-ocean ridges. This is where hydrothermal vents are found, which have diverse assemblages of extraordinary animals and bacteria that are supported by the chemically rich waters emanating from the vents.
Click here for more on hydrothermal vents.
Plates pushing against each other or are colliding produce a convergent plate boundary. This type of boundary results in one plate is being pulled beneath another (subduction) forming a deep trench. The long, narrow zone where the two plates meet is called the subduction zone. Here, a more dense oceanic crust is being subducted under the less dense continental crust. Subduction zones tend to create large, cone-shaped volcanos called stratovolcanos, such as Mt. St. Helens and Mt. Baker in Washington State.
An example of this type of convergence occurrs off the west coast of Canada, and the USA, where the smaller Juan de Fuca plate is being subducted beneath the larger North American plate, and is called the Cascadia Subduction Zone.Click here to find out more.
A transform plate boundary occurs where one plate grinds past another, side by side.
An example of this type of boundary occurs off the west coast of California, and separates the Pacific plate from the North American plate along the San Andreas fault - a famous plate that is responsible for many of California's earthquakes.

Used Cooking Oil as an Additive Component of Candle

Abstract

The study aims to produce a low-priced, high-quality candle by using used cooking oil as a major component. The following candle compositions were used: 100 percent paraffin wax; 90 percent paraffin and 10 percent oil; 80 percent paraffin and 20 percent oil; 70 percent paraffin and 30 percent oil; 60 percent paraffin and 40 percent oil; 50 percent paraffin and 50 percent oil. The firmness, texture, and light intensity of the candles were tested and compared.

Results of the tests showed that the candle made from 100 percent paraffin wax had the lowest melting rate, lowest amount of melted candle, and a light intensity of 100 candelas (cd). The 90:10 preparation had the next lowest melting rate and amount of melted candle. The other preparations ranked according to the proportion of used cooking oil in the candle, with the 50:50 preparation performing least comparably with the 100 percent paraffin wax candle.

Introduction

Today, candles are made not only for lighting purposes but for many other uses such as home décor, novelty collections, as fixtures for big occasions (weddings, baptismals, etc.), and as scented varieties for aromatherapy. Candles are made from different types of waxes and oils.

Cooking oil is a major kitchen item in Filipino households. It is also used substantially in fast-food outlets, where it is used in different stages of food preparations. Ordinarily, used cooking oil is discarded. This waste oil pollutes and clogs canals and sewerage systems.

Materials and Methods
Results and Discussion
Selected References

The Feasibility of Cocos nucifera Oil as an Additive for Quality Candles. Bato Balani Volume 15 Issue 1, Junior. pp. 16-18. Candles, Waxes, Oils. Microsoft Encarta 2004

Further clarification of the procedures and results should be directed to the researchers and adviser.

Energy Safety Tips

Indoor Safety

To use electricity as safely as possible in your home or office,use electrical cords properly. To avoid damaging cords, remove them from outlets by pulling the plug, not the cord itself. Never attach a cord to another surface with nails or staples, which can break the insulation. Avoid kinking, twisting, binding, or walking on cords.
Safely reset your circuit breakers and replace blown fuses. We have easy-to-use instructions.

Switch of unused outlets for safety measures.

Never switch in on or off with wet hands.

Circuit Breakers & Fuses

A switched-off breaker may look like it's still on, or it may have moved to another position. That's why it's a good idea to label your circuits.
To reset a circuit breaker, switch it off and then on again. If the switch is a push button, it will pop out to turn off the circuit. Pushing it all the way in will reset it.

Don't mix water with electricity

Water conducts electricity, and unsafe electricity use around water can

cause serious injury or death.

Keep water away from electricity and electrical appliances.
Never use electrical appliances while in the shower or the bath.
Never use electrical appliances while standing in water.
Always make sure your hands are dry when using an electrical appliance.

Replace incandescent light bulbs with compact fluorescent bulbs (CFLs). These bulbs use two-thirds less energy and last up to ten times longer.